2017年诺贝尔重奖900万: 垂青"时感"生物钟，谢视"磁感"指南针，想起了韩式剪刀......
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刚刚，2017年的诺贝尔生理-医学奖宣布了，得主是：
生物钟在一天之中的不同时段，对我们的生理功能进行着非常精准的调节，例如摄食行为、激素水平、睡眠情况、体温，以及新陈代谢等。现在，这一过程的分子机制基本搞清楚了，主要是三个基因和发现他们的三位科学家。
垂青了"时感"生物钟，这一结果或许会让一些中国“知识分子”大失所望，因为他们极力吹捧的“取得了诺奖级科研成果” 的两个人一个也没得奖。
是哪两个人被中国《知识分子》热捧过呢？
记忆力还没减退到会忘记2-3年之内的事的人都应当知道，《知识分子》热捧过的两位因有“土生”和 “自主”诺奖级科学发现而是最有或极有可能获得诺奖的两个中国人，就是北大的谢灿和河北科技大学的韩春雨。
谢灿应得诺奖的“理由”是发现了“第六感”- “磁感”
饶科【知识分子】中国最有可能斩获诺贝尔生理学奖的发现
（http://www.weixinyidu.com/n_2565487）
前不久，清华—北大生命科学联合中心学术带头人张生家因抢发他人成果而引发社会关注。11月16日，被抢发的“他人”——北京大学生命科学学院谢灿课题组在《自然·材料》（NatureMaterial）杂志在线发表论文，首次报道了一个全新的磁受体蛋白（MagR），该突破性进展或将揭开被称为生物“第六感”的磁觉之谜，并推动整个生物磁感受能力研究领域的发展，这一成果被学界视作“可向诺奖发起冲击”。
自然之谜——信鸽为何千里能归巢
今年11月16日，北京大学生命科学学院谢灿课题组在《自然·材料》杂志上在线发表了生物感磁研究领域的一项突破性进展。作者首先提出了一个基于蛋白质的生物指南针模型。该模型认为，存在一个铁结合蛋白作为磁感应受体，该蛋白通过组装，形成了一个棒状的蛋白质复合物，就像一个小磁棒一样有南北极。而前人推测的感磁相关蛋白Cry和磁感应受体MagR通过相互作用，在MagR棒状多聚蛋白的外围，缠绕着感光蛋白Cry，从而实现“光磁耦合”。
在这一模型的理论框架下，谢灿课题组通过计算生物学预测、果蝇的全基因组搜索和蛋白质相互作用实验，发现了一个全新的磁受体蛋白（MagR）。
MagR形成的复合物是一个短棒，由蛋白质组成，尺寸小到分子尺度，但它仍然像是一个真正的磁铁，能够顺着地球磁场的方向排列，能够吸铁，能随着磁场的变化而转动。
人们此前的研究发现，鸟类的磁感应能力依赖光照，在只有红光存在的情况下，部分鸟类的磁感应能力大大减弱，在蓝绿光存在时，其磁感应能力较为准确。
谢灿研究团队认为，MagR与CRY形成的分子机器使光磁偶联，它既能感光，又能感磁。在阳光或月光等光线存在时，信鸽利用其视网膜细胞的这一分子机器捕捉到地球磁场信息，并转化成电信号，这一电信号被神经细胞传递到信鸽大脑中，然后信鸽作出决策，决定飞向哪里。
由于MagR可以单独形成短棒状结构，研究人员认为，一些生物可以在没有光存在的情况下，通过地球磁场导航。
研究者不仅从物理性质上测量了MagR蛋白在溶液状况下的磁性特征，还通过电镜观察到MagR蛋白质复合物能感应到微弱的地球磁场（在北京大致为0.4高斯），并沿着地球磁场排列。人工增强磁场强度可以导致这种排列更加有序。实验中也观测到了蛋白质晶体呈现极强的磁性，能明显被铁磁物质吸引，当外界磁场突然反向时，蛋白质棒状复合物会发生180°跳转。同时，动物免疫组织化学实验也证明了磁感应受体MagR蛋白质和光受体Cry蛋白质在鸽子视网膜存在共定位，暗示着动物可能可以“看”到地球磁场的存在。
谢灿特别强调，这只是动物磁感应的“生物指南针”模型，其具体过程有待进一步研究和证实。刚刚发表的研究成果，仅仅解决了“信鸽是如何感应到磁场”这一问题。
韩春雨应得诺奖的“理由”是
发明了新奇的“基因剪刀”- “嗯鸡阿狗基因剪刀”
韩春雨：“一鸣惊人”的中国科学家发明世界一流新技术| 特稿
（http://news.hebust.edu.cn/mtjj/72919.htm）
饶科【知识分子】之编者按：
“河北科技大学在哪里？”“韩春雨是何方神圣？”
最近几天，中国生物学界沸腾了。其中有世界著名的生物学家、也有年轻研究员、活跃的研究生，大家议论纷纷。近年国际上因为基因修饰技术而激烈争议谁应该得诺奖，而来自河北科技大学、名不见经传的副教授韩春雨的工作打开了新局面——不是说他会得诺奖，而是有可能他发明的基因修饰新技术会替代现有技术而成为最实用的，更为重要的是：这一发现具有带来技术和产业变化的潜能。
令国人激动的是，韩春雨在河北科技大学条件不好、经费缺乏、人员很少的情况下做出的研究优于世界一流的麻省理工、哈佛、斯坦福。《知识分子》主编、北京大学教授饶毅将韩春雨推介给编辑部，在此我 31 42877 31 13308 0 0 4274 0 0:00:10 0:00:03 0:00:07 4273特别刊出专访，以飨读者。
今年42岁的韩春雨是河北科技大学的一名副教授，因为这篇新发表的工作“一鸣惊人”。
简单地说，韩春雨团队发明了一种新的基因编辑技术（NgAgo-gDNA），适合在人类细胞中基因组编辑，不同于已有最时兴的技术（CRISPR-Cas9）。后者通过RNA寻找替换序列，而新技术通过DNA作为介导寻找替换目标。
NgAgo是Natronobacteriumgregoryi Argonaute这一短语的简称。韩春雨团队就是利用格氏嗜盐碱杆菌(Natronobacteriumgregoryi)的Argonaute实现了DNA引导的基因组编辑，并发现NgAgo作为一种DNA介导的核酸内切酶，适合在人体细胞中进行基因组编辑。
Argonaute作为一个核酸内切酶家族，最早由荷兰瓦赫宁恩大学(WageningenUniversity) 的约翰-范德欧斯特（John van der Oost）研究组证明这一家族的同源蛋白酶活,可以有效地利用单链脱氧核糖核酸作为短介质，去相对精准地切割基因组靶点。
范德欧斯特的这一发现开启了基因组工程的一个新篇章，因为之前的大多数基因组工程研究是基于RNA的（CRISPR-Cas9、TALEN等，锌指蛋白是基于DNA的但是没有实现可编码的优势），哈佛大学分子与细胞生物系副研究员段昕认为，“这一进展给大家引入了一个新的思路去进一步改造”。
韩春雨团队的研究还发现，NgAgo–gDNA系统对向导序列-靶序列错配容忍度很低。gDNA上任何一个碱基的变换都会降低NgAgo的切割效率，如有三个错配则使其完全失活。这在另外一个机制上提高了NgAgo使用的精确性，特别是一些富含GC序列的地方，NgAgo系统比Cas9系统效率更高。
NgAgo的gDNA需要5’端磷酸化的单链DNA （5p-ssDNA），这种形式的DNA在哺乳动物细胞中几乎不存在，这保证了NgAgo不会被内源的DNA序列错误带到不该去的地方。该系统的另外一个优点是5p-ssDNA是外源转化进细胞的，其时间和浓度可以非常精确地控制。而Cas9系统的gRNA是内源表达的质粒,难以精确地控制。
韩春雨团队在论文中还介绍，与Cas9相似，Argonautes在基因表达抑制及抵御外源核酸中起关键作用。但是，Argonautes在许多方面不同于Cas9。比如，Cas9只存在于原核生物中，而Argonautes在进化过程中保守，存在于几乎所有生物体中；尽管大多数的Argonautes结合单链(ss)RNAs，在RNA沉默中起重要作用，一些Argonautes却可以结合ssDNAs并切割靶DNA；正确的Cas9结合要求向导RNA必须有一个3′RNA-RNA杂化结构，而Argonaute结合则不要求特异的一致的向导RNA二级结构；Cas9只可以切割PAM上游的靶序列，而Argonaute不要求靶序列上存在特异的序列。当Argonaute与向导序列结合时，它们可以影响彼此的生物化学特性，并作为一个整体起作用。
“因此，从理论上说，NgAgo的脱靶率更低”，韩春雨告诉《知识分子》。
石家庄的四人实验室
无论是在微信圈还是海外华人的论坛，人们不约而同地将韩春雨和麻省理工学院博德研究所的核心研究员张锋联系起来。1981年出生的张锋同样来自石家庄，他以在基因编辑领域的诸多贡献而被人们所熟知，包括首次报告了CRISPR-Cas9在哺乳动物体基因组编辑中的应用，找到更小的Cpf1蛋白来替代Cas9酶。
与韩春雨一直在国内接受科学训练、从事研究不同，张锋有海外学习的背景，更有在知名实验室研究的经历。11岁那年，张锋随母亲到美国爱荷华州的得梅因定居，高中时就在一个基因治疗实验室实习，全奖进入哈佛大学学习化学和物理学，期间跟随知名华人科学家庄小威做过研究，后来到光遗传学主要发明人之一卡尔·戴瑟罗特（KarlDeisseroth）在斯坦福大学的实验室，参与到光遗传学发明的部分工作。在哈佛大学短暂地停留之后，张锋受聘于博德研究所，一个科研经费和研究人员都可以在美国排到前列的研究机构。
而在河北科技大学生物科学与工程学院的实验室，“离心机是‘飞鸽’牌，与国内自行车品牌相同，从0直到今天，韩春雨所在的的生物科学与工程学院还没有博士点，韩春雨实验室的学生都是硕士研究生。理论上，韩春雨每年可以招五六个硕士研究生，但是真正能够跟他一起专注科研的，也只有一两个人。
包括《自然生物技术》的这篇论文，跟韩春雨一起做实验的一共三个人，其中第一作者高峰两年前就从河北科技大学硕士毕业，那时NgAgo的主要结果刚刚做出来，高峰没去找工作，也没有申请博士，而是留在导师韩春雨的实验室继续工作，为了省钱，甚至睡觉都在实验室。这一情景与韩春雨当年博士毕业后留在协和继续未完成的科研工作有着惊人的相似。
“韩实验室的工作是很了不起的，”北京大学生命科学学院饶毅实验室研究生张翼评论说，“他们唯一的生物信息学工具可能是NCBI-psiBLAST，他们的Argonaute都是从菌种库买来的菌里面克隆出来，根本没有花钱合成基因。”即使是在这么艰难的工作环境下，他们不仅找到了NBT文章中报道的NgAgo，还找到了（他们专利里报道的）一大堆别的Ago，都具有在低温（10-50摄氏度）下结合5p-ssDNA，造成靶DNA双链断裂的能力。
很多人对韩春雨能够在如此简陋的环境下取得开创性的工作感到惊讶，但是他的大学同学、河北师范大学特聘教授徐小冬告诉《知识分子》，她对韩春雨能够做出现在的工作一点也不感到奇怪，虽然韩春雨没有海外留学经历，但是也受到了很好的专业科学训练，她认为，对一个受过专业科学训练的科研工作者来说，占用资源的多少并不会决定他是否能够做出很好的工作。
“他这个人蛮有个性，从来不是那种循规蹈矩的人，他能够坚持一些东西，守着自己的一亩三分地，也敢于表达自己，挑战威权……投稿能够较这么长时间的劲，说明对自己的工作很有自信。”徐小冬说。
如今，面临四面八方涌来的合作邀请，韩春雨统统交给沈啸来处理。“他见识广，也是一个好的合作者……我主要在实验室干活，而且我也喜欢这样的生活。”韩春雨说。
因此，北大谢灿和河北科技大学韩春雨双双与今年的诺贝尔生理-医学奖“擦肩而过”，是在“令人痛心”，不是吗？还有人真惦记这两位中国最有可能得诺奖的主呢。不信，请看：
2017年诺贝尔
生理学或医学奖揭晓
三个美国人分享
诺贝尔生理学或医学奖获奖者
10月2日消息，2017年诺贝尔奖陆续揭晓，北京时间10月2日17:30首先公布了生理学和医学奖，获奖者分别是三位美国科学家霍尔(Jeffrey C.Hall)、罗斯巴什(Michael Rosbash)和杨(Michael W. Young)，以表彰他们“发现控制生理节律的分子机制”。
他们以果蝇为模式生物，分离出控制生物钟的基因。
据果壳网的在邵逸夫奖的报道中提到，1984年，洛克菲勒大学迈克尔·杨以及布兰戴斯大学的杰弗理·霍尔和迈克尔·罗斯巴殊团队先后独立地成功克隆了per基因。自此，科学家们开始逐步揭开昼夜节律的神秘面纱。霍尔和罗斯巴殊的团队随后发现per基因的表达产物是一种转录抑制因子，通过抑制自身的表达而产生周期约24小时的表达节律。而杨的实验室则对7000多个果蝇突变株进行分析，在1994年发现了另一个核心生物钟基因Timeless（tim）。 这个基因的表达产物TIM蛋白，与PER蛋白之间有着重要的相互作用。
后来，霍尔、罗斯巴殊与杨进行合作，获得了更多关于生物钟分子调节机制的关键信息。
据霍尔回忆，那时霍尔实验室里的一名女研究员希望向杨借用TIM蛋白的抗体，结果杨第二天就将抗体送到了霍尔的实验室。在收到抗体时，女研究员非常惊讶：“啊？这才第二天啊，这是怎么回事？”霍尔回答：“更好的时代已经来了。”霍尔指出，迈克尔·杨用行动表明，科学家们独占研究材料、为了竞争而保密的愚昧时代已经过去。
经过不懈努力，三位科学家揭示了果蝇生物钟关键组分的运作机制： 在转录因子激活下，per与tim基因不断表达。而随着它们的表达产物PER和TIM蛋白的增多，这两种蛋白结合成异二聚体，在夜间进入细胞核，抑制转录因子转录活性，从而抑制per与tim自身的转录。而随着PER和TIM的降解，转录因子的激活功能在黎明时得以恢复，激活per和tim进入新的表达周期。
虽然生物钟的分子调节网络远比上述部分复杂，不同生物中发挥作用的生物钟蛋白也不尽相同，但这种反馈环路模式在真核生物中是高度保守的。从真菌到昆虫、到哺乳动物，生物钟的运作机制本质上都是相似的。 因此，杰弗理·霍尔、迈克尔·罗斯巴殊和迈克尔·杨的开拓性研究有着不可磨灭的重要作用。得益于这三位科学家的发现，在近25年来，科学家已经对动物的昼夜节律机制有了较为完善的理解。
在一周之前，诺贝尔基金会宣布犹豫财务状况改善，将获奖者的将近从800万瑞典克朗提升至900万瑞典克朗（约合733.9万人民币）。2012年，诺贝尔基金会曾以财务问题为由将奖金从1000万瑞典克朗下降至800万瑞典克朗。
决定生物钟的三个基因
1，PER蛋白基因：period----自我反馈调节
1984 年，霍尔和 罗斯巴什（波士顿的布兰迪斯大学）和洛克菲洛大学的 迈克尔·杨成功地分离出了period 基因。他们把这个基因编码的蛋白其名为“PER”。他们发现，在晚上 ，PER 蛋白会在果蝇体内积累，到了白天又会被分解。并且发现 PER蛋白 的浓度会循环震荡，周期为 24 小时，和昼夜节律相同。他们猜测PER 蛋白可以让 period 基因失去活性。也就是PER蛋白 和 period 基因之间形成了一个抑制反馈的环路，PER蛋白 可以抑制基因合成自己，这样就形成了一个连续循环的完整节律。当period基因有活性的时候，可以合成period mRNA，然后进入细胞质后开始合成PER蛋白。PER蛋白又会进入细胞核，逐渐积累，抑制period的活性。period基因经过了一个完整的24小时周期，就形成了一个抑制性的反馈机制，形成了昼夜节律（见下图）。
period基因反馈条件的简单示意图
2， TIM蛋白基因：timeless----辅助PER蛋白工作
1994 年，洛克菲洛大学的 迈克尔·杨 发现了第二个节律基因：timeless。之前虽然已经发现PER 蛋白的功能，有一个关键环节是从细胞质进入细胞核才能抑制 period 基因。但是它是如何进入细胞核的呢？实际上Timeless 可以编码 TIM蛋白，可以帮助PER进入细胞核。 迈克尔·杨做了一个漂亮的实验，发现 TIM 会结合到 PER 上，然后两个蛋白可以一起进入细胞核，并且在那里抑制 period 基因的活性（如下图）。
参与调节节律钟的分子的简单示意图
3，DBT 蛋白基因：doubletime----精确计时
上面两个基因解释了为什么会出现周期震荡，但是这种震荡的频率周期为什么是24 小时呢？这时候，洛克菲洛大学的 迈克尔·杨 又发现了一个基因： doubletime，这个基因可以编码 DBT 蛋白。DBT 蛋白可以延迟 PER 蛋白的积累，这解释了为什么震荡的周期为什么会稳定在 24 小时左右。
精准的生物钟
实际上控制生物节律的分子机制要复杂的多。在随后的几年里，他们三人还发现了其他一些蛋白可以维持period的活性，以及外界的光如何调节生物钟。所有的多细胞生物，包括人类，都是使用同一个相似的机制来调节生理节奏。生物钟能调节我们大部分的基因，并且最终这个生物钟能使我们的生理情况适应一天中不同时段。正是这些分子调控这人们一天的节律。
生理学或医学奖历史
生理学或医学奖是根据已故的瑞典化学家诺贝尔的遗嘱而设立的，目的在于表彰在生理学或医学界做出卓越发现者。
诺贝尔生理学或医学奖于1901年首次颁发，由瑞典的医科学院卡罗琳学院负责评选。该奖项至今已颁发107次，由于常有多人共享奖项，因此获奖者有211人，其中有12名女性。
在诺贝尔百余年的历史中，有九年没有向任何人颁发生理学或医学奖，原因可能是那些年份里，这一领域可能并没有足够重要的发现和突破。同时，这一年的奖金也自动顺延到下一年。
2015年，科学家屠呦呦与另外两名科学家分享了诺贝尔生理学或医学奖，成为亚洲第一位获得这一奖项的女性科学家，这也使得这一奖项更为中国人所熟知。同时，她也是是第一位获得诺贝尔科学奖项的中国本土科学家，也是第一位获得生理学或医学奖的华人科学家。
在女性获奖者中，只有1983年的得主、美国女科学家麦克林托克（Barbara McClintock）没有与其他人分享、单独一人获得了生理学或医学奖。
在所有获得生理学或医学奖的科学家中，有一人曾经被该国政府要求拒绝领奖——1939年的得主、德国病理学家多马克（Gerhard Domagk）。
待到“诺奖周”结束，每年12月10日，诺贝尔奖颁奖典礼和晚宴会在瑞典首都斯德哥尔摩隆重举行。届时，瑞典国王会亲自为获奖者颁发证书、奖章和奖金。
生理学或医学奖奖章图案是手拿一本打开的书的医学之神，她正在从岩石间收集泉水，为生病的少女解渴。奖章上刻有一句拉丁文，大致翻译为“新的发现使生命更美好”。
而也正如奖章上的铭文所言，诺贝尔生理学或医学奖所获成果，长期以来为人类的健康作出了突出贡献。
107年的生理学或医学奖历史
All Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine：
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine has been awarded 107 times to 211 Nobel Laureates between 1901 and 2016. Click on the links to get more information.
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2016
Yoshinori Ohsumi
"for his discoveries of mechanisms for autophagy"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2015
William C. Campbell and Satoshi Ōmura
"for their discoveries concerning a novel therapy against infections caused by roundworm parasites"
Youyou Tu
"for her discoveries concerning a novel therapy against Malaria"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2014
John O'Keefe, May-Britt Moser and Edvard I. Moser
"for their discoveries of cells that constitute a positioning system in the brain"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2013
James E. Rothman, Randy W. Schekman and Thomas C. Südhof
"for their discoveries of machinery regulating vesicle traffic, a major transport system in our cells"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2012
Sir John B. Gurdon and Shinya Yamanaka
"for the discovery that mature cells can be reprogrammed to become pluripotent"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2011
Bruce A. Beutler and Jules A. Hoffmann
"for their discoveries concerning the activation of innate immunity"
Ralph M. Steinman
"for his discovery of the dendritic cell and its role in adaptive immunity"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2010
Robert G. Edwards
"for the development of in vitro fertilization"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2009
Elizabeth H. Blackburn, Carol W. Greider and Jack W. Szostak
"for the discovery of how chromosomes are protected by telomeres and the enzyme telomerase"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2008
Harald zur Hausen
"for his discovery of human papilloma viruses causing cervical cancer"
Françoise Barré-Sinoussi and Luc Montagnier
"for their discovery of human immunodeficiency virus"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2007
Mario R. Capecchi, Sir Martin J. Evans and Oliver Smithies
"for their discoveries of principles for introducing specific gene modifications in mice by the use of embryonic stem cells"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2006
Andrew Z. Fire and Craig C. Mello
"for their discovery of RNA interference - gene silencing by double-stranded RNA"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2005
Barry J. Marshall and J. Robin Warren
"for their discovery of the bacterium Helicobacter pylori and its role in gastritis and peptic ulcer disease"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2004
Richard Axel and Linda B. Buck
"for their discoveries of odorant receptors and the organization of the olfactory system"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2003
Paul C. Lauterbur and Sir Peter Mansfield
"for their discoveries concerning magnetic resonance imaging"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2002
Sydney Brenner, H. Robert Horvitz and John E. Sulston
"for their discoveries concerning genetic regulation of organ development and programmed cell death'"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2001
Leland H. Hartwell, Tim Hunt and Sir Paul M. Nurse
"for their discoveries of key regulators of the cell cycle"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2000
Arvid Carlsson, Paul Greengard and Eric R. Kandel
"for their discoveries concerning signal transduction in the nervous system"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1999
Günter Blobel
"for the discovery that proteins have intrinsic signals that govern their transport and localization in the cell"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1998
Robert F. Furchgott, Louis J. Ignarro and Ferid Murad
"for their discoveries concerning nitric oxide as a signalling molecule in the cardiovascular system"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1997
Stanley B. Prusiner
"for his discovery of Prions - a new biological principle of infection"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1996
Peter C. Doherty and Rolf M. Zinkernagel
"for their discoveries concerning the specificity of the cell mediated immune defence"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1995
Edward B. Lewis, Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard and Eric F. Wieschaus
"for their discoveries concerning the genetic control of early embryonic development"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1994
Alfred G. Gilman and Martin Rodbell
"for their discovery of G-proteins and the role of these proteins in signal transduction in cells"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1993
Richard J. Roberts and Phillip A. Sharp
"for their discoveries of split genes"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1992
Edmond H. Fischer and Edwin G. Krebs
"for their discoveries concerning reversible protein phosphorylation as a biological regulatory mechanism"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1991
Erwin Neher and Bert Sakmann
"for their discoveries concerning the function of single ion channels in cells"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1990
Joseph E. Murray and E. Donnall Thomas
"for their discoveries concerning organ and cell transplantation in the treatment of human disease"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1989
J. Michael Bishop and Harold E. Varmus
"for their discovery of the cellular origin of retroviral oncogenes"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1988
Sir James W. Black, Gertrude B. Elion and George H. Hitchings
"for their discoveries of important principles for drug treatment"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1987
Susumu Tonegawa
"for his discovery of the genetic principle for generation of antibody diversity"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1986
Stanley Cohen and Rita Levi-Montalcini
"for their discoveries of growth factors"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1985
Michael S. Brown and Joseph L. Goldstein
"for their discoveries concerning the regulation of cholesterol metabolism"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1984
Niels K. Jerne, Georges J.F. Köhler and César Milstein
"for theories concerning the specificity in development and control of the immune system and the discovery of the principle for production of monoclonal antibodies"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1983
Barbara McClintock
"for her discovery of mobile genetic elements"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1982
Sune K. Bergström, Bengt I. Samuelsson and John R. Vane
"for their discoveries concerning prostaglandins and related biologically active substances"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1981
Roger W. Sperry
"for his discoveries concerning the functional specialization of the cerebral hemispheres"
David H. Hubel and Torsten N. Wiesel
"for their discoveries concerning information processing in the visual system"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1980
Baruj Benacerraf, Jean Dausset and George D. Snell
"for their discoveries concerning genetically determined structures on the cell surface that regulate immunological reactions"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1979
Allan M. Cormack and Godfrey N. Hounsfield
"for the development of computer assisted tomography"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1978
Werner Arber, Daniel Nathans and Hamilton O. Smith
"for the discovery of restriction enzymes and their application to problems of molecular genetics"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1977
Roger Guillemin and Andrew V. Schally
"for their discoveries concerning the peptide hormone production of the brain"
Rosalyn Yalow
"for the development of radioimmunoassays of peptide hormones"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1976
Baruch S. Blumberg and D. Carleton Gajdusek
"for their discoveries concerning new mechanisms for the origin and dissemination of infectious diseases"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1975
David Baltimore, Renato Dulbecco and Howard Martin Temin
"for their discoveries concerning the interaction between tumour viruses and the genetic material of the cell"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1974
Albert Claude, Christian de Duve and George E. Palade
"for their discoveries concerning the structural and functional organization of the cell"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1973
Karl von Frisch, Konrad Lorenz and Nikolaas Tinbergen
"for their discoveries concerning organization and elicitation of individual and social behaviour patterns"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1972
Gerald M. Edelman and Rodney R. Porter
"for their discoveries concerning the chemical structure of antibodies"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1971
Earl W. Sutherland, Jr.
"for his discoveries concerning the mechanisms of the action of hormones"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1970
Sir Bernard Katz, Ulf von Euler and Julius Axelrod
"for their discoveries concerning the humoral transmittors in the nerve terminals and the mechanism for their storage, release and inactivation"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1969
Max Delbrück, Alfred D. Hershey and Salvador E. Luria
"for their discoveries concerning the replication mechanism and the genetic structure of viruses"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1968
Robert W. Holley, Har Gobind Khorana and Marshall W. Nirenberg
"for their interpretation of the genetic code and its function in protein synthesis"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1967
Ragnar Granit, Haldan Keffer Hartline and George Wald
"for their discoveries concerning the primary physiological and chemical visual processes in the eye"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1966
Peyton Rous
"for his discovery of tumour-inducing viruses"
Charles Brenton Huggins
"for his discoveries concerning hormonal treatment of prostatic cancer"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1965
François Jacob, André Lwoff and Jacques Monod
"for their discoveries concerning genetic control of enzyme and virus synthesis"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1964
Konrad Bloch and Feodor Lynen
"for their discoveries concerning the mechanism and regulation of the cholesterol and fatty acid metabolism"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1963
Sir John Carew Eccles, Alan Lloyd Hodgkin and Andrew Fielding Huxley
"for their discoveries concerning the ionic mechanisms involved in excitation and inhibition in the peripheral and central portions of the nerve cell membrane"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1962
Francis Harry Compton Crick, James Dewey Watson and Maurice Hugh Frederick Wilkins
"for their discoveries concerning the molecular structure of nucleic acids and its significance for information transfer in living material"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1961
Georg von Békésy
"for his discoveries of the physical mechanism of stimulation within the cochlea"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1960
Sir Frank Macfarlane Burnet and Peter Brian Medawar
"for discovery of acquired immunological tolerance"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1959
Severo Ochoa and Arthur Kornberg
"for their discovery of the mechanisms in the biological synthesis of ribonucleic acid and deoxyribonucleic acid"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1958
George Wells Beadle and Edward Lawrie Tatum
"for their discovery that genes act by regulating definite chemical events"
Joshua Lederberg
"for his discoveries concerning genetic recombination and the organization of the genetic material of bacteria"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1957
Daniel Bovet
"for his discoveries relating to synthetic compounds that inhibit the action of certain body substances, and especially their action on the vascular system and the skeletal muscles"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1956
André Frédéric Cournand, Werner Forssmann and Dickinson W. Richards
"for their discoveries concerning heart catheterization and pathological changes in the circulatory system"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1955
Axel Hugo Theodor Theorell
"for his discoveries concerning the nature and mode of action of oxidation enzymes"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1954
John Franklin Enders, Thomas Huckle Weller and Frederick Chapman Robbins
"for their discovery of the ability of poliomyelitis viruses to grow in cultures of various types of tissue"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1953
Hans Adolf Krebs
"for his discovery of the citric acid cycle"
Fritz Albert Lipmann
"for his discovery of co-enzyme A and its importance for intermediary metabolism"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1952
Selman Abraham Waksman
"for his discovery of streptomycin, the first antibiotic effective against tuberculosis"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1951
Max Theiler
"for his discoveries concerning yellow fever and how to combat it"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1950
Edward Calvin Kendall, Tadeus Reichstein and Philip Showalter Hench
"for their discoveries relating to the hormones of the adrenal cortex, their structure and biological effects"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1949
Walter Rudolf Hess
"for his discovery of the functional organization of the interbrain as a coordinator of the activities of the internal organs"
Antonio Caetano de Abreu Freire Egas Moniz
"for his discovery of the therapeutic value of leucotomy in certain psychoses"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1948
Paul Hermann Müller
"for his discovery of the high efficiency of DDT as a contact poison against several arthropods"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1947
Carl Ferdinand Cori and Gerty Theresa Cori, née Radnitz
"for their discovery of the course of the catalytic conversion of glycogen"
Bernardo Alberto Houssay
"for his discovery of the part played by the hormone of the anterior pituitary lobe in the metabolism of sugar"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1946
Hermann Joseph Muller
"for the discovery of the production of mutations by means of X-ray irradiation"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1945
Sir Alexander Fleming, Ernst Boris Chain and Sir Howard Walter Florey
"for the discovery of penicillin and its curative effect in various infectious diseases"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1944
Joseph Erlanger and Herbert Spencer Gasser
"for their discoveries relating to the highly differentiated functions of single nerve fibres"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1943
Henrik Carl Peter Dam
"for his discovery of vitamin K"
Edward Adelbert Doisy
"for his discovery of the chemical nature of vitamin K"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1942
No Nobel Prize was awarded this year. The prize money was with 1/3 allocated to the Main Fund and with 2/3 to the Special Fund of this prize section.
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1941
No Nobel Prize was awarded this year. The prize money was with 1/3 allocated to the Main Fund and with 2/3 to the Special Fund of this prize section.
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1940
No Nobel Prize was awarded this year. The prize money was with 1/3 allocated to the Main Fund and with 2/3 to the Special Fund of this prize section.
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1939
Gerhard Domagk
"for the discovery of the antibacterial effects of prontosil"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1938
Corneille Jean François Heymans
"for the discovery of the role played by the sinus and aortic mechanisms in the regulation of respiration"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1937
Albert von Szent-Györgyi Nagyrápolt
"for his discoveries in connection with the biological combustion processes, with special reference to vitamin C and the catalysis of fumaric acid"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1936
Sir Henry Hallett Dale and Otto Loewi
"for their discoveries relating to chemical transmission of nerve impulses"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1935
Hans Spemann
"for his discovery of the organizer effect in embryonic development"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1934
George Hoyt Whipple, George Richards Minot and William Parry Murphy
"for their discoveries concerning liver therapy in cases of anaemia"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1933
Thomas Hunt Morgan
"for his discoveries concerning the role played by the chromosome in heredity"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1932
Sir Charles Scott Sherrington and Edgar Douglas Adrian
"for their discoveries regarding the functions of neurons"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1931
Otto Heinrich Warburg
"for his discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1930
Karl Landsteiner
"for his discovery of human blood groups"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1929
Christiaan Eijkman
"for his discovery of the antineuritic vitamin"
Sir Frederick Gowland Hopkins
"for his discovery of the growth-stimulating vitamins"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1928
Charles Jules Henri Nicolle
"for his work on typhus"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1927
Julius Wagner-Jauregg
"for his discovery of the therapeutic value of malaria inoculation in the treatment of dementia paralytica"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1926
Johannes Andreas Grib Fibiger
"for his discovery of the Spiroptera carcinoma"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1925
No Nobel Prize was awarded this year. The prize money was allocated to the Special Fund of this prize section.
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1924
Willem Einthoven
"for his discovery of the mechanism of the electrocardiogram"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1923
Frederick Grant Banting and John James Rickard Macleod
"for the discovery of insulin"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1922
Archibald Vivian Hill
"for his discovery relating to the production of heat in the muscle"
Otto Fritz Meyerhof
"for his discovery of the fixed relationship between the consumption of oxygen and the metabolism of lactic acid in the muscle"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1921
No Nobel Prize was awarded this year. The prize money was allocated to the Special Fund of this prize section.
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1920
Schack August Steenberg Krogh
"for his discovery of the capillary motor regulating mechanism"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1919
Jules Bordet
"for his discoveries relating to immunity"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1918
No Nobel Prize was awarded this year. The prize money was allocated to the Special Fund of this prize section.
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1917
No Nobel Prize was awarded this year. The prize money was allocated to the Special Fund of this prize section.
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1916
No Nobel Prize was awarded this year. The prize money was allocated to the Special Fund of this prize section.
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1915
No Nobel Prize was awarded this year. The prize money was allocated to the Special Fund of this prize section.
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1914
Robert Bárány
"for his work on the physiology and pathology of the vestibular apparatus"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1913
Charles Robert Richet
"in recognition of his work on anaphylaxis"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1912
Alexis Carrel
"in recognition of his work on vascular suture and the transplantation of blood vessels and organs"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1911
Allvar Gullstrand
"for his work on the dioptrics of the eye"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1910
Albrecht Kossel
"in recognition of the contributions to our knowledge of cell chemistry made through his work on proteins, including the nucleic substances"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1909
Emil Theodor Kocher
"for his work on the physiology, pathology and surgery of the thyroid gland"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1908
Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov and Paul Ehrlich
"in recognition of their work on immunity"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1907
Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran
"in recognition of his work on the role played by protozoa in causing diseases"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1906
Camillo Golgi and Santiago Ramón y Cajal
"in recognition of their work on the structure of the nervous system"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1905
Robert Koch
"for his investigations and discoveries in relation to tuberculosis"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1904
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov
"in recognition of his work on the physiology of digestion, through which knowledge on vital aspects of the subject has been transformed and enlarged"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1903
Niels Ryberg Finsen
"in recognition of his contribution to the treatment of diseases, especially lupus vulgaris, with concentrated light radiation, whereby he has opened a new avenue for medical science"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1902
Ronald Ross
"for his work on malaria, by which he has shown how it enters the organism and thereby has laid the foundation for successful research on this disease and methods of combating it"
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1901
Emil Adolf von Behring
"for his work on serum therapy, especially its application against diphtheria, by which he has opened a new road in the domain of medical science and thereby placed in the hands of the physician a victorious weapon against illness and deaths"